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The following
is a portion of text entirely from the Review
by Roy W. Johnson of Carl Bridenbaugh's book "Jamestown 1544-1699"
[New York: Oxford
University Press, 1980 ISBN 0-19-502650-0 ] .
The reader is
encouraged to access the primary text given in link for the following:
Opechancanough,
"Desiring to return to his people, he was placed on a ship to Mexico,
but the Spanish governor refused to allow him to leave for the north. He
spent three years in Mexico and undoubtedly observed that even those native
Americans who were friendly to the Europeans were losing their culture
and becoming second class citizens in their own former land. He then returned
to Spain and furthered his education with the Jesuits for another three
years. Eventually, he returned to his own land as a missionary and interpreter.
However, he reverted to some Indian ways (such as multiple wives) and was
severely reprimanded and humiliated by the accompanying Jesuit priests.
He eventually denounced Christianity, led a raid, and killed his tormentors.
After that, he terminated all contacts with Europeans and Christianity.
"Opechancanough was,
of course, correct in his belief that the English planned to seize Indian
land. This was the whole purpose of the Virginia Company. Among the whites,
there were two general groups. Most of the common men of the colony and
some of theleaders had only contempt for the natives and saw them as an
impediment to be destroyed. Other leaders, most of whom were Puritans,
wanted to be kind to the Indians, "Christianize" them (which meant also
teaching them English ways), and make them "loyal subjects" to their English
overlords. Either way, their culture would be destroyed and they would
lose control over lands their ancestors had ruled for centuries.
"By
1613, Bridenbaugh believes, Opechancanough had concluded that the English
colony was intended to be permanent and expand.His brother was the ruler,
the tribes were not united and the other natives had to be convinced of
the danger, so he had to work carefully. Opechancanough used every means
to make the whites feel safe and secure while he was uniting the tribes,
blending European and native American methods of diplomacy. In one instance,
a neighboring tribe was reluctant to join his alliance. He encouraged the
tribe to attack the whites , then warned the English of the attack, which
therefore failed. The English thus thought of him as a friend, and the
Indians became convinced that they could not go it alone. He attended the
wedding of Pocahontas and John Rolfe and gave the bride away, possibly
seeing the marriage as an additional way to buy time.
"After Powhatan's
death, there was a brief period of uncertainty, then Opechancanough himself
became Paramount Chief, taking over the 'empire' of tribes that he had
masterminded under Powhatan. By 1622, the influx of English was becoming
alarming. He apparently believed the English to be so strong that only
a telling and total blow would suffice to drive them away."
From
Review
by Roy W. Johnson of the book "Jamestown
1544-1699" by Carl Bridenbaugh [New York: Oxford University Press,
1980 ISBN 0-19-502650-0 ]
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Before
Openchancanough: Chief Powhatan [Wahunsonacock] and His Reign
For the following,
great reliance is made on the Mariners Museum webpages involving
Native
Americans Post Contact.
Much more information
is available at that site.
The English
were well aware of the adversity of settling on already settled land. In
the Instructions to the Colonists prior to departure in 1606, the crown
advised on the mode of settlement and choice of locale featuring natural
protection and with comment on natives : "they will grow discontented with
your habitation,and be ready to guide and assist any nation that shall
come to invade you; and if you neglect this, you neglect your safety."
The English left
their homeland 1606 , arrived to Jamestown in 1607 and soon encountered
the Powhatan Confederacy and their Chief Powhatan
[so named by the English; his Indian name was Wahunsonacock].
Despite parlays and presents [ including an English bed] , and the exchange
of European goods [including coveted tools ] for desperately needed [vital]
food in the early years of the colony, uneasy testing of each other's
stregnth occured with the English ascertaining the Chief's power and possible
enemies and weaknesses, and the Powhatan Confederacy conducting several
small-scale raids against the new fort. Powhatan and English leaders
came to realize that they both could benefit from peace.
"On June 15, 1607,
Powhatan, the paramount chief, issued an order to cease the raiding of
the English. Peace reigned for a short period with Powhatan and his brothers
occasionally sending gifts of venison to Jamestown. In September, the summer's
first corn ripened enough to eat and some neighboring chiefdoms contributed
to the colony's supplies. January 2, 1608... a fire destroyed
all ...supplies and the remaining corn. This left the English without food
again. Powhatan stepped in and supplied the English with provisions
at regular intervals.......The spring of 1608 brought increased hostilities
between the English and the Powhatans. Chief Powhatan lost patience with
the English when they began drilling their men outside the fort at
Jamestown, appearing to prepare an attack......Powhatan allowed his subjects
to start harassing the English and stealing tools from the fort. The English
took hostages in exchange for the stolen tools. The Paspaheghs, one of
the local Powhatan tribes,captured a couple of Englishmen to exchange for
the Powhatan hostages....By the time the colony was two years old, the
major Powhatan settlements had been seized. The Powhatans were so
fixed on retribution, that the colonists were safe only when inside the
fort."19
In 1608 Powhatan's
half brother, Openchancanough [his later succesor] , captured Captain John
Smith and brought him back to Powhatan's main village where he was sentenced
to death, so the story goes, until intercession by Pocahontas, the Chief's
daughter. During The Starving Time of 1609-10,
which threatened the Powhatans as much as the colonists, the Powhatans
remained eerily elusive, hoping their own people would survive, and the
colony would just starve to death, which it nearly did. Boats
barely existed and trade, even if it could be had, was not accesable. "The
English sold all of their tools to neighboring tribes, who after
getting the tools would not give the English food. If the colonists tried
to leave the fort to hunt or gather food, they were ambushed. When the
colonists realized that Powhatan intended to starve them out of Virginia,
all pretenses at being allies ended. ...It was at this time that Captain
John Smith planned to capture Powhatan to force the people to trade with
the English. The English believed that they had a right to trade, even
if the Powhatans didn't want to sell. When Powhatan extended an invitation
for John Smith to travel to Werowocomoco, {the Powhatan Capital}
(present-day Gloucester), Smith readily accepted. Smith was warned of a
planned ambush when he stopped at Warraskoyack to buy provisions....The
foiled ambush on each side may have been the reason Chief Powhatan
moved his capital to Orapax, in the headwaters of the Chickahominy. ...In
September 1609, Captain John Ratcliffe was invited to Orapax, Powhatan's
new capital. When he sailed up the Pamunkey River to trade there, a fight
broke out between the colonists and the Powhatans. All of the English were
killed, including Ratcliffe, who was tortured by the women of the tribe."19
In 1609 Lord de la
Warr's fleet arrived. "When Powhatan continued to attack the fort
and ambush stray colonists, de la Warr became aggressive and ordered Gates
to punish the Kecoughtans for killing the settlers the year before. After
Gates lured the Kecoughtans out of their town and ambushed them,
the surviving Kecoughtans fled and the land was claimed by the English.
On July 15, Lord de la Warr sent a message to Powhatan giving him a choice
of peace or war. The choice of peace would require the return of any stolen
goods and captives. Powhatan sent back a message to warn the English to
either stay in the fort at all times or to leave Virginia. Powhatan
also demanded that if de la Warr wished to talk to him again, he
needed to send a coach and three horses. (Powhatan had learned that this
was the mode of transportation for great lords in England and felt he deserved
the same consideration.)"19
In May 1610, after
the arrival of the survivors of the Third Supply's flag ship from
Bermuda where it had been shipwrecked, and in new boats built on that isle,
"Gates decided to evacuate the colony. Once they were on their way
out to sea, they met the remainder of Lord de la Warr's lost fleete and
were ordered to return to Jamestown.
"The
First Anglo-Powhatan War was the result of Lord de la Warr's
orders to George Percy on August 9, 1610. Percy and seventy men went to
the capital town of Paspahegh where the English killed or injured fifity
or more people and captured a wife of Wowinchopunch, the weroance, and
her children. After returning to their boat, the Englishmen killed the
children by throwing them overboard and shooting them in the water. The
killing of women and children was not tolerable in Powhatan warfare: it
greatly affected Powhatan and his people. The Paspaheghs never recovered
from this and appeared to have merged with other chiefdoms." 19
"Powhatan continued
to observe the English warily. His warriors harassed the colonists with
small-scale attacks. Although the colonists eventually planted their
own corn, they remained dependent upon the Indians to ensure that they
would have enough provisions, especially in the lean winter months. Powhatan
continued to trade but the terms became more contentious. In 1614, the
Englishmen kidnapped his daughter Pocahontas in order to get back some
of their own people taken in the attacks. The settlers offered a
prisoner exchange and Powhatan complied with this request. He refused,
however, to return the stolen weapons that the colonists demanded."20
Pocahontas
[Matoaca], was married to John Rolfe in 1614. The marriage of the chief's
daughter to John Rolfe allowed for a period of relative peace and tranquility.
In 1616, she , her husband, and infant son Thomas, in company with 10 other
Indians, embarked to England where she died in 1617. In 1618 Thomas'
grandfather Powhatan died. Thomas remained in England where he received
education. Initially succeeded by ----------, Openchancanough, more militant
and direct than his older half brother, became leader of his people; the
fragile peace was weakened, and in 1622, entirely fractured.
"Opitchanpan, Powhatan's
brother and heir, became the paramount chief after Powhatan's
death [1618 and one year after Powhatan's daughter's death in England]
. After just a few months, he stepped down and allowed his brother,
Opechancanough, to assume control.....[His] land centered around
present day West Point, Virginia at the headwaters of the York River. He
had strong dislike and distrust of the English. Opechancanogh's resentment
can probably be traced to a time when John Smith seized him, put
a pistol to his chest, and "led the trembling king (near dead with feare)
amongst all his people"; an unforgivable insult to a warrior of royal status."19
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Opechancanough
and the 1622 Massacre
From 1618 there was
a movement among certain of the company to incorporate the Indians into
the society, to christianize them, and some were living in the town. Still
the colonists in general disdained the natives. This in part no doubt
led to Opechancanough's gathering fury, and his attempt to obliterate
the colony can be seen as an attack at cultural deconstructionism as much
as protection of territory. He had reason to object to the amalgamation
of the natives into the Jamestown populace; His attack was thwarted
by one so converted.
Shortly after Powhatan's
death, thereafter "Opechancanough, another brother, became werowance. Despite
his Christian training under the Spanish, Opechancanoughís one goal was
to drive the English from Virginia. Toward that end, he organized and executed
the terrible massacre of Good Friday, 22 March 1622. Three hundred forty-seven
men, woman and children were murdered and mutilated with their own weapons.
This loss represented one-third of the colonyís population." 8
"Powhatan, the friend
of the English, was dead, and his younger brother, the subtle, treacherous
and truly Indian Opechancanough (the captor of Smith in the forest), was
then wielding the sceptre of his empire. He could command fifteen hundred
warriors to do his bidding. He hated the English intensely, and inspired
his followers with the same passion; yet he feigned the warmest friendship
for them, and deceived them with Satanic smiles. He believed that the English
intended to seize the lands of his empire and exterminate his race, and
his patriotism impelled him to strike a blow for his country and countrymen".7[
text from late 1800s]
The
massacre as reported to England Contemporaneously and in 1622
"For some reasons,
best known to the English government, in March 1622 the King of England
had to remind King Powhatan of the articles of the treaty of peace existing
between them, in answer to which King Powhatan said that he would prefer
seeing the country turned upside down rather than break a single article
of the treaty, but, as will be proved later on, this conduct of the savages
was nothing but hypocrisy and deceit, they only awaiting a favorable opportunity
to kill out the English.
"Several days before
this bloodthirsty people put their plan into execution, they led some of
our people through very dangerous woods into a place from which they could
not extricate themselves without the aid of a guide, others of us who were
among them to learn their language were in a friendly way persuaded to
return to our colony, while new comers were treated in an exceedingly friendly
manner.
"On Friday before
the day appointed by them for the attack they visited, entirely unarmed,
some of our people in their dwellings, offering to exchange skins, fish
and other things, while our people entirely ignorant of their plans received
them in a friendly manner.
"When the day appointed
for the massacre had arrived, a number of the savages visited many of our
people in their dwellings, and while partaking with them of their meal
the savages, at a given signal, drew their weapons and fell upon us murdering
and killing everybody they could reach sparing neither women nor children,
as well inside as outside the dwellings. In this attack 347 of the English
of both sexes and all ages were killed. Simply killing our people did not
satisfy their inhuman nature, they dragged the dead bodies all over the
country, tearing them limb from limb, and carrying the pieces in triumph
around. "
From contemporaneous
account: "Two
Tragic Events: 1. The Seafight of Capt. Anthony Chester, 1621 2. The Indian
Massacre, 1622," 1620, 1622.
Footnote:"Before
the attack on March 22, 1622, the Powhatan people were free to come and
go in the English settlements. They were free to
borrow tools and even boats. George Thorpe, an English minister and
new governor, believed that the Powhatans
were "of a peaceable
and vertuous disposition" and treated the Powhatans kindly. This
attitude spread to other colonists,
giving the Powhatans
mixed feelings. Opechancanough expected help from every warrior in every
tribe in the planned attack. He did not anticipate that some of his people
had developed mixed loyalties and would warn the English of
the attack. The Powhatans who were torn in their loyalties were personified
in a legendary figure known as 'Chanco.' "19
"Chanco,
a Christian Indian,.. heard of the conspiracy in the evening before the
massacre. He hastened to Jamestown to warn a friend of impending danger.
The alarm spread, but it was too late to reach the more remote settlements.
The people at Jamestown were prepared to meet the assassins, and so averted
the blow which might have extinguished the colony. Those at a distance,
who survived the carnage, beat back the Indians and then fled to Jamestown.
In the course of a few days, eighty inhabited plantations were reduced
to eight. But a large part of the colony was saved. ' " 7
"We read from a
letter dated 4 April 1623, from the Governor and Council to the Company
(in London), ' The great king sends Chanco
( a person that
revealed the plot to divers the day of the massacre & so served them)'
" 8
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The
1632 Treaty ending the 2nd Anglo-Powhatan War and the Staging of the 1644
Massacre igniting the 3rd Anglo-Powhatan War
The Following is
fromîThe Pamunkey Davenport Chroniclesî by John Scott Davenport,
Ph. D. Margo McBride Editor. Crystal Lake, Il 60014.
It is an extensive
geneological study, in which the origins of the family is discussed. In
this way, it focuses on the 1623 treaty
and its effects.
"Pamunkey
Neck, that long finger of land between the Mattaponi and Pamunkey Rivers
above where they join to become the York River (in 2001 King William County,
the southern half of Caroline county, and southernmost Spotsylvania County),
was set off by Treaty between the Governor of Virginia and the King of
the Pamunkey Indians in 1623. The Pamunkeys (of Pocahontas fame) were the
largest and strongest of all the tribes in Powhatanís Confederation opposing
English settlement and exercised the major role in the Massacre in the
English Settlements on Good Friday, 1622. Their pacification was
imperative if Virginia English settlement was to succeed. By
the Treaty of 1632, Pamunkey Neck was declared to be an Indian reserve,
protected from settlement or hunting trespass by the English. There was
, in fact, a mandatory death sentnce in place until 1648 for any White
Man caught settling or trespassing in the Neck. But the Pamunkey King himself
began to make exceptions, needing help from the English and their muskets
to drive off raiding Senecase from the North, the fierce Tuscaroras from
the South, and other nomad tribes of Iroquoian stock who kept the Neck
in turmoil (the Pamunkey and their allies were of Algonquin roots.)
The Indian King allowed so mny White Men into his preserve-their only bar
was that no English settlement be within three miles of an Indian town-that
Virginia authorities recognized that the Pamunkeys bey their self serving
allowances had made the death penalty a face.Then
too, the tribeís repeated attacks upon settlers bordering the Neck had
created a demand among settlers that the Pamunkeys and their allied tribes
be pacified by being made civilized, which required close interface between
the Indians and the English. The death sentence relative to settlement
and hunting in the Neck was repealed in 1648.
ìIt was Openchancanough
...and not the English who violated the treaty. In 1644 his braves went
on the warpath and killed off most of the settlers who dared settle along
the south bank of the Pamunkey [across the
river from Pamunkey Neck]. After this outrage the House of Burgesses repealed
enforcement of [the death penalty]...î [Chapman, T. E., Colonial Carolina:
A History of Caroline County, Virginia (Richmond: The Dietzz Press, 1954),
8].....
"Various Pamunkey Kings sold, traded ,
or gave land within the tribal preserve to Englishmen starting in 1648
(when the death law was repealed), a practice continuing until 1684 when
the Pamunkeys were forced by inevitable circumstance to recognize that
accommodation with the English was their only chance for survival. The
Pamunkey Queen began a long negotiation process with the Crown. Her husband,
Totpotami, who allied with the English against invading Indians, had benn
killed in battle in 1656. Concurrently ignoring the Indians rights and
defending their settlements with forts and stockades, a number of squatters
invaded the Neck ."
FromîThe
Pamunkey Davenport Chroniclesî by John Scott Davenport, Ph. D. Margo
McBride Editor. Crystal Lake, Il 6001
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The 1646
Treaty Ending the 2nd Anglo-Powhatan war was signed by Necotowance, Opechancanough's
succesor
1.
What
the Treaty Sought
2. The
Lands Involved
3.
Its Effects and later legislation
Treaty
of 1646
The treaty of
1646 has never had a title, and it did not involve the Eastern Shore at
all.10
1. What
the Treaty Sought
"The treaty of 1646
with the successor of Opechancanough
inaugurated the policy of major historical significance of either setting
aside area reserved for Indian tribes, or establishing a general boundary
line between white and Indian settlements. Influenced by the desire of
individual settlers to fortify their claims and by the opposition of the
natives to white encroachment, the colony designated definite lands for
the Virginia Indians and began to follow more closely the custom of purchasing
all territory received from the natives. To see that this was done, the
Assembly passed numerous laws, pertaining in most cases only to the specific
tribes of Indians mentioned in each act.... The treaty of 1646 designated
the York River as the line to separate the settlements of the English and
the natives. But the colony at that time was on the eve of a great period
of expansion. With an estimated population of 15,000 in 1650, the colony
increased by 1666 to approximately 40,000, and by 1681 to approximately
80,000. To stem the tide of the advancing English settlement was apparently
an impossibility. Therefore, Governor William Berkeley and the Council,
upon representation from the Burgesses, consented to the opening of the
land north of the York and Rappahannock rivers after 1649. At the same
time the provision making it a felony for the English to go north of the
York was repealed.
This turn in policy,
based upon the assumption that some intermingling of the white and red
men was inevitable, led to the effort to provide for an "equitable division"
of land supplemented by attempts to modify the Indian economy which had
previously demanded vast areas of the country. "
(Submitted by PACJ1945@aol.com
on VA Southside Mailing List, submitted for Gill web page by Sue Gill and
found at Link)
2. The
Lands Involved
"Before Surry was
split from James City, the settlers made the first of many treaties with
the Southside Virginia Indians. It appears that the Southside tribes of
Indians were relatively weak, and hardly had enough warriors to protect
themselves. This treaty provided help from the settlers, should other marauding
tribes of Indians attack them.
The settlers wanted
no Indians to live in the area they had settled. They also wanted information
only the Indians could provide on the marauding tribes coming into the
area to attack both the local Indians and the settlers. They also needed
the trade with the Indians that had been established.
The Blackwater River
became the dividing line. Indians South, settlers North. This agreement
in 1646 settled the Indian War of 1644 - 1646.
This treaty between
the inhabitants of this colony and Necotowance, King of the Indians settled
(temporarily) relations with the Indians"11
The
Effects of the 1646 Treaty
[from "Economic
History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: An Inquiry into the
Material Condition of the People, Based on Original and Contemporaneous
Records" by Bruce, Philip A. New York: MacMillan and Co., 1896. Chapter
VIII. [cites 1 Abstracts of Proceedings of the Virginia Company of
London, vol. II, p. 6.] p 491-492
"The larger proportion
of the Peninsula, the seat of the earliest English settlements, was acquired
at first by conquest, but right of possession was afterwards confirmed
by treaty. Thirty-nine years after the foundation of Jamestown, in
a conference between Necotowance, the new Indian ruler, and representatives
of the colonial government, the former, in the name of his people, agreed
to abandon all that area of country which extended between the James andYork
from a line drawn from the falls of the Powhatan to the falls of the modern
Pamunkey. No attempt was to be made tdisturb their tenure of the region
lying between the York and Rappahannock. If any one of the colonists visited
the north side of the former stream without having been driven across by
stress of weather, or having gone thither for the purpose of gathering
sedge, or cutting timber, he was to be considered a felon and punished
as such. Necotowance was required to acknowledge that he held his kingdom
under the authority of the sovereign of England.1
Two years later,
the statute declaring it to be a felony in all who sought to establish
themselves on the north side of the modern York was repealed. It was now
pronounced entirely lawful to make a settlement even on the north side
of the Rappahannock.2 The agreement with the Indians had broken
down, the reason given for the infraction of the treaty being that the
lands owned by a large proportion of the planters in the country between
the York and the James had become incapable of producing good crops
of tobacco, and it was, therefore, necessary to grant them the right to
remove to parts of the Colony where the soil was still in its virgin condition.3
In 1653, the
Assembly adopted regulations which assured to the Pamunkey and Chickahominy
Indians the fullest protection against all intrusions on their grounds.
The right was now given to some of the tribes to dispose of their lands
by bargain and sale, provided that the Governor and Council had, after
an examination, expressed....
Cites
1 Heningís Statutes,
vol. I, p. 323.
2 Ibid., p.
354.
3 Ibid., p. 353."
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The Treaty of October
1677
"Opechancanough
was succeeded by Necotowance [ed note : who signed the treaty
of 1746 ending the third anglo powhatan war and severely
restricting the territory of the Powhatan people by confining
them to small reservations ], son of Powhatan's
eldest sister, then by the Queen of Pamunkey who was reigning in
1676. In that year, when trouble with northern Indians was threatening,
she was invited to Jamestown to confer with the governor and council. The
chairman asked her how many men she could furnish the colony in the war
that seemed impending. At first she declined to speak, but finally uttered
vehement reproaches against the English for their injustice and ingratitude.
Her husband, Totopotomoi, had been slain with many of his men while
assisting the settlers against the Ricahecreans, and she had never had
'any compensation for her loss.' After further parley, she 'abruptly
quitted the room.'"
13
"The treaty of October 1677 [ which
the
Queen of Pamunkey signed]
established an annual tribute
of twenty beaver skins to be paid to the colonists. The English also claimed
the right to appoint Necotowance's successors. This treaty made the English
the sole owners of the Lower Peninsula between the James and the York Rivers.
The Settlement Law gave the Powhatans freedom to inhabit land north of
the York River, but it did not restrict the English from also settling
there. The English were free to expand after notifying Necotowance,
or his successor, of their intentions. An agreement was made among
the English to wait until after the Powhatans had forgotten the recent
wars before moving northward."
From The Mariner's Museum Post
Contact Page
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Sources For This
Page:ld
1.
Review
by Roy W. Johnson of "Jamestown 1544-1699" by
Carl Bridenbaugh [New York: Oxford University Press, 1980
ISBN 0-19-502650-0 ]
2.
CHRONOLOGY
OF INDIAN ACTIVITY [from the National Park Service involving Jamestown]
Very brief summation
3.
Webcitation found at http://www.geocities.com/bryanmcgirt_uncp/article1.html
4.
The Indian Tribes of North Americaby John R. Swanton Virginia Tribes
Manahoac through Tutelo.
Presented by the
website Searching
for Saponi Town"
6.
History
of the Pamunkey Tribe from the Pamunkey Tribe Pages
7.Opechancanough,
the massacre of 1622,
an excerpt from Volume I of Our County, published in the late 1800s
8. Jamestown
Society pages
9.Powhatan
Indian Lifeways presented by the National Park Service
10. Helen C. Rountree,
Ph.D. Professor Emerita of Anthropology , Old Dominion University
, Norfolk, Virginiain
her articleIn Helen Rountree's response to Accohannock history
found at the New Mexico Genealogical Society's pages.
11.Newsletter Volume
3, Number 4, December 2000
Webpages of the Surry Side Of the Jamestown
Settlement Surry County, VA. USA. No author is given. Page mounted
by Surry County, Virginia, Historical Society and Museums, Inc
12. Jamestown Interpretive
Essays " Sir William Berkeley" by Warren M. Billings, Historian of
the Supreme Court of Louisiana and
Distinguished Professor of History, University
of New Orleans. Virginia Center for Digital History, University of Virginia
http://www.iath.virginia.edu/vcdh/jamestown/essays/billings_essay.html
13.
In pages of t the University of Virginia American Studies Webpages. Unsourced
tour information
14.
Martin's
Hundred from History.net. "This article was written by J. Frederick
Fausz and originally published in American History Magazine in March 1998.
" Reprinted under the Fair
Use doctrine of international copyright law.
15.
Jamestown 1544-1699 by Carl Bridenbaugh [New York: Oxford University
Press, 1980 ]
16.
The History and Present State of Virginia by Robert Beverly . Edited by
Louis B. Wright. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947.
17.
In River Time The Way of the James by Ann Woodlief Algonquin
Books of Chapel Hill, 1985 . Chapter 5. Reprinted under the Fair
Use doctrine of international copyright law.
18. The Church of
England, Diocese of Rochester, webpage entitled St
George's Church Gravesend. The Story of Princess Pocahontas.
19. Native
Americans Post
Contact from The
Mariners Museum, Newport News, Va pages
20.
the Powhatan
Pageof Virtual Jamestown Website
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