The Powhatan Confederacy 
Territory, linguistic stock, numbers & situation at time of contact

"John Smith said, "The men bestowe their times in fishing, hunting, wars, and such manlike exercises...The women and children do the rest of the worke..." According to Gabriel Archer, the Powhatan women "do all the labour and the men hunt and goe at their pleasure." However, in the Powhatan culture, men and women were both vital to the survival of the family.....When the Powhatans began to use currency later in the  century, it was the women who kept the money. (The Powhatans were a matrilineal society, which meant that the family tree was traced through the mother and any inheritance was also passed through the mother.)"¹²

The Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy inhabited eastern Virginia, living in the coastal plain of Virginia,  both the tidewater section and the present eastern shore and in a 9,000 square mile area.They had many enemies, and theirs was not the only Confederacy of allied clans or bands in the region united for common protection and good. It was Wahunsonacock , having inherited 6 tribes from his father, who brought  the Powhatan Confederacy  more, holding sway over about 32 bands involving but not limited to  the Pamunkey, Rhappahanock, Mattaponi [or Mattapony],  Chickahominy, Nansemond, Doeg, Wicocomico, Pocomoke [subtribe of Powhatan and part of the Accomac federation]  and Potomac Indians by the time Jamestown was settled. Loosely called the Powhatan,  they were known as the  Sachdagugh-roonnw by the Iroquois. Swanton lists the known subtribesin his work and gives their locale by present Virginia county. He also includes the known villages. at the same link. The  Internet School Library Media Center Virginia's Indians, Past & Present page offers further links on some of these tribes catalogued by Swanton.. 

Some say the Powhatan were driven North to Virginia by the Spanish, where their chief, Powhatan's father, subjugated five other Virginia tribes.  Santon does not mention this, and remarks  "The Powhatan were visited by some very early explorers, including probably the Cabots in 1498. Their territory was well known to the Spaniards in the latter part of the sixteenth century and a Jesuit mission was established among them in 1570 though soon extinguished by the Indians. In 1607 the Virginia colony was  planted on James River and from that time on relations between the Whites and Powhatans were of the most intimate character, friendly at first, but later disturbed by the exactions of the newcomers."⁴
They were a sedentary people, with some 200 settlements, many of them protected by palisades when the English arrived. "The Powhatan had placed their villages well-inland to protect them from Susquehannock war parties who ranged the coastline by canoes. One reason the Powhatan were not completely opposed to English settlement at first was that they proided additional protection, but the Susquehannock still attacked the Potomac (Powhatan) villages in northern Virginia during 1610" ¹⁰

In the section ìPowhatan Confederacyî of the Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars 1492-1890, Jerry Keenan explains that
"there were 30 or so tribes with about 14,000 tribal people in which 3,000 were warriors (176)."³ Others report about 12,000 people  some 3,000 of which were probably warriors. Swanton writes ""The Powhatan population was estimated by Mooney (1928) as 9,000 in 1600; Smith (1884) allows  them 2,400 warriors; in 1669 a census gave 528 warriors or about 2,000 population, the Wicocomoco being then the largest tribe. In 1705 the Pamunkey by themselves numbered 150 souls. Jefferson in 1785 represented the two  tribes which he mentions as having but 15 men; Mooney, however, believed that there must have been a population of something like 1,000 because of the number of mixed-bloods still surviving. The census of 1910 returned 115 Chickahominy and 85 Pamunkey. The United States Office of Indian Affairs Report for 1923 includes   still other bands, giving in all a population of 822, and Speck (1925) gives the names of 10 bands aggregating 2,118 in 1923. The census of 1930 returned only 203 Indians from Virginia but evidently missed nearly all except  the Pamunkey. " .⁴

Today "there are seven recognized tribes totaling 9,500 Powhatan Indians. ThePamunkey  and Mattaponi reservations (1,000 acres) cover much of the same territory as the original lands. These were the first two Indian reservations established in the United States." ²

Virginia's Indians, 
Past & Present

The Powhatan were engaged in warfare with the Manahoacs [see the Manahoac Confederacy]  This tribe is described by Swanton.  They were of the Siouan linguistic family and lived in the piedmont area of Virginia.  The Manahoacs and  the Monacans  "probably did what they could to prevent the Powhatans from venturing west into the mountains, especially during the crucial autumn harvest."¹⁵ At the time John Smith discovered them  the Manahoac " were allied with the Monacan but at war with the Powhatan Indians and the Iroquois (or perhaps rather the Susquehanna)" ⁴
When history speaks of the Manahoacs, it is often referring not only to the tribe but also the Manahoac Confederacy. Included in the Confederacy were allies of some other tribes including the Monacans and Tuscaroras. ⁸ Captain John Smith encountered a large group of Manahoacs  in 1608 at the falls of the Rappahannock  River¹⁵ where he was attacked by them, they having heard he came to steal their land. ⁸ He captured a wounded brave and learned something about the tribe and where it lived, and when Manahoacs attacked the next day kept his promise to free the brave if he could stop the attack. The brave convinced the warriors the English were not enemies.  A feast was held, and Smith turned back, never again to visit the Manahoac villages ⁸   "Archaeologists have found traces of Manahoac villages and camps along the Rapidan River and Rappahannock River above the falls. ..Most of the tribes of the Confederacy had moved by the middle of theseventeenth century, possibly due to attack from other Indian tribes from the north. The English had brought diseases which killed many of the native people. These diseases may have reduced the number of people, as well. Many of the tribes in Virginia were nearly wiped out. The survivors of some tribes, such as the Saponis and the Occaneches, banded together. The Manahoacs may have joined with these tribes. A small population of the Manahoac remained in the area for generations, however."⁸

Virginia's Indians, 
Past & Present

The Monacans " were enemies of both the Algonquian speaking Powhatans and the Iroquoian speaking Cherokees"⁴  The Monacans lived above the falls of the James River [the falls described as " the rapids near the headwaters of the James River"¹³] and were of Siouan linguistic family . The tribe is described by Swanton. They are considered the first people of Albemarle and Amherst Counties, Virginia. ¹³ They too had several tribes which paid tribute to their chiefs forming a confederacy, involving " four other tribes who lived in Louisa, Fluvanna, Bedford, Buckingham, Cumberland and Powhatan counties"¹³  and " including  the Monacan tribe, the Tutelo, the Saponi and the Mannahoac".⁹     Estimates of their numbers vary from 1200 to 5200 or more. ¹³ The Manahoacs and  the Monacans  "probably did what they could to prevent the Powhatans from venturing west into the mountains, especially during the crucial autumn harvest."¹⁵

Captain John Smith learned from a Powhatan informant about the existence of five Monacan settlements along the James River¹⁵    Once the English colony began to expand beyond the lands of the Powhatan Confederacy, the Monacans came under increasing pressure both from the Cherokees and from the colonist as well."¹³  "The tribe became caught between the expanding English colony and the Cherokees. The Cherokees may have defeated the Monacans in a battle in which many of the Monacan warriors were killed. The Monacans and the Powhatans, despite their past, joined together in 1611 to try to drive out the English."⁴ They are well discussed in this Link

Virginia's Indians, 
Past & Present

The Susquehannocks were the dominant tribe that lived in the Northern Chesapeake watershed. This powerful Group inhabited the region of the Susquehanna River and its branches from the north end of Chesapeake Bay in Maryland across Pennsylvania into southern New York. "The earliest village sites identified as Susquehannock were located on the upper Susquehanna River and date from about 1550, but they probably had occupied the region for at least 400 years before this. Although they inflicted a major defeat on the Mohawk shortly before 1600, wars with the Iroquois had by 1570  forced the Susquehannock south into the lower Susquehanna Valley. Hardened by years of constant warfare, they  overwhelmed the Algonquin tribes along the shores of Chesapeake Bay and began extending their control southward. The  first European contact with the Susquehannock was in 1608 when Captain John Smith (from Jamestown) was exploring the   northern end of Chesapeake Bay. This encounter was friendly enough, but Smith was wary because of their reputation and   awed by their size. His later reports described them as giants."¹⁴ Smith's map includes a caption beneath a Susquehannock image that they  "are a Gyant  like people & thus Atyred" ....the Swedes thirty years later also commented on their size. There were at least five tribal groups and the population is thought somewhere between 5-7000 in 1600.
" The Powhatan also knew the Susquehannock (whom they called cannibals) from painful experience, and when the English first settled Virginia, the Powhatan had placed their villages well-inland to protect them  from Susquehannock war parties who ranged the coastline by canoes. One reason the Powhatan were not completely opposed to English settlement at first was that they provided additional protection, but  the Susquehannock still attacked the Potomac (Powhatan) villages in northern Virginia during 1610." ¹⁰ The Atlantic Coast Tribes engaged in warfare in the 1600s over the right to trade with the Dutch and Swedes. The Susquehannock were soon trading with the English in Virginia, pushing aside the Powhatan ¹¹ Apparantly the Powhatan called them Pocoughtaonack or the Bocootawwanauke. In Penna they were called Conestoga [from  Kanestoge]  and they were Andaste to the French, Andastoerrhonon to  the Huron and Mingua to the Swedes.
The Susquehannock dedicated and detailed page  appears in Natives of Pennsylvania and their relationship to our immigrants.

Powhatan
Said by Gerard to signify "falls in a current of water," and applied originally to one tribe but extended by the English to its chief Wahunsonacock, and through him to the body of tribes which came under his sway. 
Also called: Sachdagugh-roonnw, Iroquois name.

Connections.- The Powhatan belonged to the Algonquian linguistic stock, their nearest relatives probably being the Algonquian tribes of Carolina and the Conoy.

Location.- In the tidewater section of Virginia from Potomac River to the divide between James River and Albemarle Sound, and  the territory of the present eastern shore of Virginia. (See also Maryland and District of Columbia.)

Subdivisions

        Subtribes constituting this group are as follows:

        Accohanoc, in Accomao and part of Northampton Counties, Va., and probably extending slightly into Maryland.

        Accomac, in the southern part of Northampton County, Va.

        Appomattoc, in Chesterfield County.

        Arrohattoc, in Henrico County.

        Chesapeake, in Princess Anne County.

        Chickahominy, on Chickahominy River.

        Chiskiac, in York County.

        Cuttatawomen, in King George County.

        Kecoughtan, in Elizabeth City County.

        Mattapony on Mattapony River.

        Moraughtacund, in Lancaster and Richmond Counties.

        Mummapacune, on York River.

        Nansemond, in Nansemond County.

        Nantaughtacund, in Essex and Caroline Counties.

        Onawmanient, in Westmoreland County.

        Pamunkey, in King William County.

        Paspahegh, in Charles City and James City Counties.

        Pataunck, on Pamunkey River.

        Piankatank, on Piankatank River.

        Pissasee, in King George and Westmoreland Counties.

        Potomac, in Stafford and King George Counties.

        Powhatan, in Henrico County.

        Rappahannock, in Richmond County.

        Secacawoni, in Northumberland County.

        Tauxenent, in Fairfax County.

        Warrasqueoc, in Isle of Wight County.

        Weanoe, in Charles City County.

        Werowcomoco, in Gloucester County.

        Wicocomoco, in Northumberland County.

        Youghtanund, on Pamunkey River.

 Villages

        Accohanoc, on the river of the same name in Accomac or Northampton Counties.

        Accomac, according to Jefferson (1801), about Cheriton, on Cherrystone Inlet, Northampton County.

        Acconoe, between Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers, in New Kent County.

        Accoqueck, on Rappahannock River, above Secobec, in Caroline County.

        Accossuwinck, on Pamunkey River, King William County.

        Acquack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River, in Caroline County. 

        Appamattoc, on the site of Bermuda Hundred, in Prince George County. 

        Appocant, on the north bank of Chickahominy River, in New Kent County. 

        Arrohattoc, in Henrico County on the James River, 12 miles below the falls at Richmond.

        Askakep, near Pamunkey River in New Kent County.

        Assaomeck, near Alexandria.

        Assuweska, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in King George County.

        Attamtuck, between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers in New Kent County.

        Aubomesk, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Richmond County.

        Aureuapeugh, on Rappahannock River in Essex County.

        Cantaunkack, on York River in Gloucester County.

        Capahowasic, about Cappahosic in Gloucester County.

        Cattachiptico, on Pamunkey River in King William County.

        Cawwontoil, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Chawopo, at the mouth of Chipoak Creek, Surry County.

        Checopissowo, on Rappahannock River above Tobacco Greek, in Caroline County.

        Chesakawon, above the mouth of Corotoman River, in Lancaster County.

        Chesapeake, according to Jefferson on Linnhaven River in Princess Anne County a small stream flowing north into Chesapeake Bay.

        Chiconessex, about Wiseville, in Accomac County.

        Chincoteague, about Chincoteague Inlet, in Accomac County.

        Chiskiac, on the south side of York River, about 10 miles below the junction of the Mattapony and Pamunkey.

        Cinquack, near Smiths Point on the Potomac, in Northumberland County.

        Cinquoteek, in the fork of Mattapony and Pamunkey Rivers, in King William County.

        Cuttatawomen, (1) on the Rappahannock River at Corotoman River in Lancaster County; (2) about Lamb Creek on the Rappahannock, in King George County.

        Gangasco, near Eastville, in Northampton County.

        Kapawnich, on the north bank of the Rappahannock, about Corotoman River in Lancaster County.

        Kerahocak, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in King George County.

        Kiequotank, on the eastern shore of Accomac County, north of Metomkin.

        Kupkipcock, on Parnunkey River in King William County.

        Machapunga, (l) in Northampton County; (2) on Potomac River.

        Mamanahunt, on Chickahominy River, in Charles City County.

        Mamanassy, at the junction of Pamunkey and Mattapony Rivers in King and Queen County.

        Mangoraca, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Richmond County.

        Mantoughquemec, on Nansemond River, in Nansemond County.

        Martoughquaunk, on Mattapony River in Caroline County.

        Massawoteck, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County.

        Matchopick, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Matchut, on Pamunkey River, in New Kent County.

        Mathomauk, on the west bank of James River, in Isle of Wight County.

        Matomkin, about Metomkin Inlet in Accomac County.

        Mattacock, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County.

        Mattacunt, on the south side of Potomac River in King George County.

        Mattanock, on the west side of Nansemond River, near its mouth, in Nansemond County.

        Maysonec, on the north bank of the Chickahominy in New Kent County.

        Menacupunt, on Pamunkey River, in King William County.

        Menaskunt, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Meyascosic, on the north side of James River in Charles City County.

        Mohominge, near the falls of James River, in Richmond County.

        Mokete, on Warrasqueoc Creek, in Isle of Wight County.

        Moraughtacund, near the mouth of Moratico River in Richmond County.

        Mouanast, on the north bank of Rappahannock River, in King George County.

        Mutchut, on the north bank of the Mattapony River in King and Queen County.

        Muttamussinsack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Caroline County.

        Myghtuckpassu, on the south bank of Mattapony River in King William County.

        Namassingakent, on the south bank of Potomac River in Fairfax County.

        Nameroughquena, on the south bank of the Potomac River in Alexandria County, opposite Washington, D. C.

        Nansemond, probably about Chuckatuck in Nansemond County.

        Nantapoyac, on the south bank of James River in Surry County.

        Nantaughtacund, on the south side of the Rappahannock River in either Essex County or Caroline County.

        Nawacaten, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Nawnautough, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Nechanicok, on the south bank of the Chickahominy in the lower part of Henrico County. 

        Nepawtacum, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in Lancaster  County.

        Onancock, near Onancock in Accomac County.

        Onawrnanient, probably on Nominy Bay, in Westmoreland County.

        Opiscopank, on the south bank of the Rappahannock River in Middlesex County.

        Oquomock, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Orapaks, in New Kent County, between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers.

        Ottachugh, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River in Lancaster County.

        Ozatawomen, on the south bank of the Potomac River in King George County.

        Ozenic, on Chickahominy River in New Kent County.

        Pamawauk, perhaps identical with Pamunkey.

        Pamuncoroy, on the south bank of Pamunkey River in New Kent County.

        Pamunkey, probably near West Point in King William County.

        Papiscone, on the north bank of the Rappahannock in King George County.

        Pasaugtacock, on the north bank of York River in King and Queen County.

        Paspahegh, (1) on the south bank of Chickahominy River in Charles City County; (2) on the north bank of James River in Charles City County.

        Passaunkack, on the south bank of Mattapony River in the northwestern part of King William County.

        Pastanza, on or near Potomac River, possibly on Aquia Creek, in Stafford County.

        Pawcocomac, on the north bank of Rappahannock River at the mouth of the Corotoman in Lancaster County.

        Pecearecamek, an Indian settlement reported on the southernVirginia border, perhaps mythical.

        Pemacocack, on the west bank of Potomac River in Prince William County about 30 miles below Alexandria.

        Piankatank, on Piankatank River in Middlesex County.

        Pissacoac, On the north bank of Rappahannock River above Leedstown in Westmoreland County.

        Poruptanck, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County.

        Potaucac, in New Kent County between the Chickahominy and Pamunkey Rivers.

        Potomac, about 55 miles in a straight line from Chesapeake Bay, on a peninsula in what is now Stafford County, formed by Potomac River and Potomac Creek.

        Powcomonet, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Powhatan, on the north bank of James River at the falls on ground now forming an eastern suburb of Richmond.

        Poyektauk, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Poykemkack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Pungoteque, in Accomac County, probably near Metomkin Inlet.

        Quackcohowaon, on the south bank of the Mattapony in King William County.

        Quioucohanock, probably on an eminence now called Wharf Bluff just east of Upper Chipoak Creek in Surry County.

        Quiyough, on the south bank of Aquia Creek near its mouth, in Stafford County.

        Rappahannock, at the mouth of a creek on Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Rickahake, probably in Norfolk County.

        Righkahauk, on the west bank of Chickahominy River in New Kent County.

        Ritanoe, probably Powhatan, in Virginia or North Carolina.

        Roscows, in Elizabeth City County.

        Secacawoni, at the mouth of Coan Creek on the south bank of the Potomac in Northumberland County.

        Secobeck, on the south bank of Rappahannock River in Caroline County.

        Shamnpa, on Pamunkey or York River.

        Sockobeck, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County.

        Tantucquask, on Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Tauxenent, about Mount Vernon in Fairfax County.

        Teracosick, on the west bank of Nansemond River in Nansemond County.

        Utenstank, on the north bank of Mattapony River in Caroline County.

        Uttamussac, on the north bank of Pamunkey River in King William County.

        Uttamussamacoma, on the south bank of Potomac River inWestmoreland County.

        Waconiask, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in King George County.

        Warrasqueoc, on the south bank of James River at the mouth of

        Warrasqueoc Creek in Isle of Wight County.

        Weanoc, below the mouth of Appamattox River at the present Weyanoke in Prince George County.

        Wecuppom, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

        Werawahon, on the north bank of Chickahominy River in New Kent County.

        Werowacomoco, on the north bank of York River in Gloucester County about opposite the mouth of Queen Creek.

        Wicocomoco, at the mouth of Wicomico River in Northumberland County.

        Winsack, on the north bank of Rappahannock River in Richmond County.

History.- 
The Powhatan were visited by some very early explorers, including probably the Cabots in 1498. Their territory was well known to the Spaniards in the latter part of the sixteenth century and a Jesuit mission was established among them in 1570 though soon extinguished by the Indians. In 1607 the Virginia colony was planted on James River and from that time on relations between the Whites and Powhatans were of the most intimate character, friendly at first, but later disturbed by the
exactions of the newcomers. Peace was restored for a lime by the marriage of Powhatan's daughter Pocahontas to John Rolfe, and lasted until Powhatan's death in 1618. In 1622 Powhatan's second successor, Opechancanough, led an uprising against the colonists, as a result of which all of the White settlements except those immediately about Jamestown were destroyed. War continued until1636 when exhaustion of both sides led to peace, but in 1644 Opechnncanough led another uprising as destructive as the first.He was captured and was killed the same year. The tribes made peace separately, and they were placed upon reservations, where they gradually dwindled away. In 1654 or 1656 the Pamunkey assisted the English in resisting an invasion of some inland people, but the allied army was severely defeated (see Manahoac).
In 1675 these Indians were accused of having committed certain depredations, really caused by the Conestoga, and several unauthorized expeditions were led against them by Nathaniel Bacon. In August 1676 a great body of them gathered in a fort near Richmond which was carried by storm, and men, women, and children indiscriminately massacred. Peace was made with the survivors on condition that an annual tribute be paid by each village. In 1722 in a treaty made at Albany between the English and Iroquois, the latter agreed to cease their attacks upon the Powhatan Indians, but the Powhatans already had been greatly reduced and they continued to decline. Those on the eastern shore of Virginia, who had become very much mixed with Negroes, were driven away in 1831 during the excitement caused by the slave rising under Nat Turner. In 1785 Jefferson reported the Powhatan Indians reduced to two tribes, the Pamunkey and Mattapony, embracing only about 15 men, but he must have overlooked great numbers of these Indians, for at the present time there are several bands, including the Chickahominy, Nansemond, Pamunkey, Mattapony, Upper Mattapony, Rappahannock, Wicocomoco, Potomac, Powhatan, and Werowocomoco (Speck, 1925).

 Population.- 
The Powhatan population was estimated by Mooney (1928) as 9,000 in 1600; Smith (1884) allows them 2,400 warriors;  in 1669 a census gave 528 warriors or about 2,000 population, the Wicocomoco being then the largest tribe. In 1705 the Pamunkey by themselves numbered 150 souls. Jefferson in 1785 represented the  two tribes which he mentions as having but 15 men; Mooney, however, believed that there must have been a population of  something like 1,000 because of the number of mixed-bloods still surviving. The census of 1910 returned 115 Chickahominy and 85 Pamunkey. The United States Office of Indian Affairs Report for1923 includes still other bands, giving in all a population of 822, and Speck (1925) gives the names of 10 bands aggregating 2,118 in 1923. The census of 1930 returned only 203 Indians from Virginia but evidently missed nearly all except the Pamunkey.

 Connection in which they have become noted.- 
The Powhatan Confederacy is famous as embracing those Indians among whom the first permanent English settlement in North America was made; for the personal character of its chief, Powhatan, who had conquered about 24 tribes, in addition to the 6 under him at his accession, before the appearance of the Europeans; on account of the dealings of the Whites with both Powhatan and his brother Opechancanough, as well as the massacre of the settlers by the latter in 1622 and again in 1644; and not least from the fame attached to Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas. There are post villages named Powhatan in Jefferson County, Ala.; Lawrence County, Ark.; Natchitoches Parish, La.; McDowell County, W. Va.; a county and county seat of the name in Virginia; Powhatan Point
in Belmont County, Ohio; and Powhattan in Brown County, Kans.

2. CHRONOLOGY OF INDIAN ACTIVITY [from the National Park Service involving Jamestown] Very brief summation
3. Webcitation found at http://www.geocities.com/bryanmcgirt_uncp/article1.html
4. The Indian Tribes of North Americaby John R. Swanton  Virginia Tribes   Manahoac through Tutelo.
Presented by the website Searching for Saponi Town"
See also Extract from Swanton in these pages

5. From the American Studies Pages of The University of Virginia dealing with Virginia History. Specific Page Entitled  "Indians"
6.  .Powhatan Indian Lifeways
7. Virginia's Indian Tribes The Powhatan Confederacy. Part of The Internet School Library Media Center. Page generally references for all its information without specific footnote Rountree, Helen. The Powhatan Indians of Virginia; Their Traditional Culture. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989, p. 148.

8. The Manahoac Confederacy of Virginia . Part of The Internet School Library Media Center. Page generally references for all its information without specific footnote :  A.Egloff, Keith and Deborah Woodward. First People; The Early Indians of Virginia. University Press of Virginia, 1992. and  B.Bushnell, David I. The Manahoac Tribes in Virginia, 1608.. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1985

9. Virginia's Indians: Monacans. Part of The Internet School Library Media Center. Page generally references for all its information without specific footnote :  A.Egloff, Keith and Deborah Woodward. First People; The Early Indians of Virginia. University Press of Virginia, 1992. and  B.Bushnell, David I. The Manahoac Tribes in Virginia, 1608.. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1985

10. SUSQUEHANNOCK HISTORY, Lee Sultzman.

11.Information on the Susquehannock Indians from Pagewise

12. Native Americans Post Contact:, from The Mariners Museum, Newport News, Va pages

13. .  Internet School Library Media Center, Monacan Indians page.

14 SUSQUEHANNOCK HISTORYpart of First Nations, Issues of Conesquence pages

15. From the Blue Ridge to The Chesapeake, A Brief History of Virginia's Indians, from The Potomac Appalachian Trail Club